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Goldman Sachs does and seeks to do business with companies covered in its research reports. As a result, investors should
be aware that the rm may have a conict of interest that could aect the objectivity of this report. Investors should
consider this report as only a single factor in making their investment decision. For Reg AC certication and other
important disclosures, see the Disclosure Appendix, or go to www.gs.com/research/hedge.html. Analysts employed by
non-US aliates are not registered/qualied as research analysts with FINRA in the U.S.
The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc.
EQUITY RESEARCH | May 6, 2025 | 6:21AM HKT
With 500,000 Robotaxis expected to be operating across 10+ cities in China by 2030, we believe the question is
no longer if L4 autonomous technology is ready, but one of how companies will commercialize the rapid pace of
autonomous development. We see Robotaxis as one of the earliest and most visible avenues to
commercialization of the autonomous technology, with growing consumer acc
eptance across large Tier 1 cities,
a tightening supply of human drivers as the eets mature and driv
ers retire, and with Government and insurance
industry as enablers to support growth. We see both a sizeable TAM opportunity ahead – US$47bn by 2035, as
well as a path to protability, modelling positive gr
oss margins in early 2026 for Tier 1 cities. Key factors to
watch:
Decreasing costs of hardware and algorithms: Our forecast for China’s Robotaxi TAM of $47bn by 2035E vs. 1
$54mn in 2025 is driven by decreasing costs of hardware and algorithms and lowering operating costs for eet
owners. The form factor is a swing factor: Robotaxis have the potential to transform productivity of time spent
in cars, turning vehicles into entertainment hubs or private workspace, gains that may signicantly increase
c
onsumer demand. Supportive Government policies/licensing, and the development of insurance for the
industry are both needed to support growth. Accident rates remain a crucial swing factor for expanding
customer acceptance and reputation risk.
Unit economics turning protable, encouraging more suppliers: By 2035E, we expect revenues per Robotaxi 2
in Tier-1 cities to reach $31,000, higher than current ride hailing vehicles, due to longer operating hours and
ecient route planning. We model positive gross margin at the vehicle level by 2026E/2031E/2034E in T1/ T2/
other cities.
Allen Chang
+852 2978-2930
allen.k.chang@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C.
Verena Jeng
+852-2978-1681
verena.jeng@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C.
Mark Delaney, CFA
+1(212)357-0535
mark.delaney@gs.com
Goldman Sachs & Co. LLC
Ronald Keung, CFA
+852-2978-0856
ronald.keung@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C.
Global Technology
Robotaxi
China’s Robotaxi market - the road to commercialization
Note: The following is a redacted version of the original report published 6 May 2025 [34 pgs].

Xuan Zhang
+852-2978-1478
xuan.zhang@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C.
Allen Chang
+852-2978-2930
allen.k.chang@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C
.
V
erena Jeng
+852-2978-1681
verena.jeng@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C
.
M
ark Delaney, CFA
+1(212)357-
0535
m
ark.delaney@gs.com
Goldman Sachs & Co. LLC
Ronald Keung, CFA
+852-2978-
0856
r
onald.keung@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C
.
Ko
ta Yuzawa
+81(3)4587-
9863
kot
a.yuzawa@gs.com
Goldman Sachs Japan Co., Ltd.
Lincoln Kong, CFA
+852-2978-6603
lincoln.kong@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C.
Tina Hou
+86(21)2401-8694
tina.hou@goldmansachs.cn
Goldman Sachs (China)
Securities Company Limited
Thomas Wang
+852-2978-
1697
t
homas.wang@gs.com
Goldman Sachs (Asia) L.L.C
.
E
ric Sheridan
+1(917)343-
8683
e
ric.sheridan@gs.com
Goldman Sachs & Co. LLC
Ben Miller
+1(917)343-8674
benjamin.miller@gs.com
Goldman Sachs & Co. LLC
Contributing Authors

China Robotaxi TAM Snapshot 3
China Robotaxi TAM in details 5
Global Robotaxi TAM scenarios 6
(1) Market size? 700x China Robotaxi TAM growth in the next 10 years 6
(2) Penetration? 25% by 2035 to fill the labour gap of taxi drivers 7
(3) Elements of success? Technology and experience 9
(4) Revenues generation? Up to $31k per vehicle in tier-1 cities by 2035E 9
(5) Costs reduction? Down to $19k per vehicle in tier-1 cities in 2035E 10
(6) Unit economics? Profit making by 2026E/ 31E/ 34E in Tier-1/ -2 / other cities 12
(7) Operating leverage? Increasing operating profits as business scales 13
(8) Downside risk? Profitability is sensitive to competition 14
(9) Downside risks? Accidents can damage reputation 15
(10) Where to find Robotaxis? 10+ cities with Robotaxi services in China 15
(11) Policy progress? Supportive policies with more operating areas 16
(12) Insurance support? Still in early stage of development 18
(13) Reasons to use Robotaxi? A new riding experience with entertainment 18
(14) Future form factors? Without steering wheels, but with robotic arms, AI and drones 19
(15) Future market segmentation? Widening choice of car models 20
(16) Potential up-scaling methods? Collaboration with riding platforms 21
(17) Potential up-scaling methods? Shared-ownership to encourage adoption 22
(18) What to improve? Density and fleet coverage 23
(19) What to improve? Cleaning and maintenance 23
(20) What to improve? Algorithm enhanced by world model 24
(21) How to evaluate safety? Sensors, driving styles and emergency measures 25
(22) How to enhance safety? Combined effort in software, hardware, and regulations 25
Disclosure Appendix
27
6 May 2025
2
Goldman Sachs
Global Robotaxi
Table of Contents

China Robotaxi TAM Snapshot
ASP per order (US$): $3.0 per order in Tier-1 cities by 2035E
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
2024 2025E 2026E 2027E 2028E 2029E 2030E 2031E 2032E 2033E 2034E 2035E
Tier-1
Tier-2
Others
-
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
50,000
2024 2025E2026E2027E2028E2029E2030E2031E2032E2033E2034E2035E
(US$m)
Tier-1 city Robotaxi Tier-2 city Robotaxi Other cities
+96%
China Robotaxi market: US$47B opportunity by 2035E, compared to
US$54m in 2025
Fleet size by 2030(E): Tier-1 cities 270K; Nation wide 474K
Pony AI,
57
9
Others,
40
Beijing
Pony AI,
35
5
Others,
13
Shanghai
Pony AI,
22
5
Others,
37
Guangzhou
Pony AI,
28
5
Others,
15
Shenzhen
Fleet size by 2035(E): Tier-1 cities 622K; Nation wide 1.9M
Pony AI,
93
34
Others,
117
Beijing
Pony AI,
85
20
Others,
67
Shanghai
Pony AI,
41
20
Others,
55
Guangzhou
Pony AI,
41
20
Others,
31
Shenzhen
Orders per day: 29 orders per day in Tier-1 cities by 2035E
14
15
21
27 27 27
28
29 29 29 29 29
14
15
19
20 20 20 20 20
21
22 22 22
14
15
16
17 17 17
18 18
19
20
21 21
2024 2025E 2026E 2027E 2028E 2029E 2030E 2031E 2032E 2033E 2034E 2035E
Tier-1
Tier-2
Others
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
2025E 2030E 2035E
Beijing Shanghai
Guangzhou Shenzhen
Tier-2 cities Other cities
Robotaxi penetration rate
China Robotaxi Fleet: 1.9M by 2035E with 25% penetration to total
shared mobility vehicles, vs. 4,000 in 2025E with 0.1% penetration
Fares per km (US$): $0.3 in Tier-1 cities by 2035E
-
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
2024 2025E 2026E 2027E 2028E 2029E 2030E 2031E 2032E 2033E 2034E 2035E
Tier-1 Tier-2 Others
Operating distance per day (km): 284 in Tier-1 cities by 2035E
94
101
138
179
191
216
244
257
268
273
278
284
40
90
140
190
240
290
340
2024 2025E 2026E 2027E 2028E 2029E 2030E 2031E 2032E 2033E 2034E 2035E
Tier-1
Tier-2
Others
('000)
('000)
('000)
(US$)
(US$)
(km)
Source: Company data, Goldman Sachs Global Investment Research
6 May 2025
3
Goldman Sachs
Global Robotaxi

China Robotaxi TAM in details
Exhibit 2: China Robotaxi TAM: increasing from US$54mn to US$47bn in 2025-35E
China Robotaxi TAM
1. China Robotaxi TAM (US$m) 2024 2025E 2026E 2027E 2028E 2029E 2030E 2031E 2032E 2033E 2034E 2035E
China Robotaxi TAM
10 54 206 606 1,703 4,313 11,711 18,637 26,306 33,924 40,538 46,568
Tier-1 city Robotaxi 6 40 156 484 1,457 3,335 8,064 11,351 14,189 16,492 17,866 19,457
Tier-2 city Robotaxi 3 12 29 66 181 785 2,835 5,374 9,272 14,334 19,161 23,150
Other cities 1 3 21 56 65 193 812 1,912 2,845 3,098 3,512 3,961
Mix 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Tier-1 city Robotaxi 60% 73% 76% 80% 86% 77% 69% 61% 54% 49% 44% 42%
Tier-2 city Robotaxi 29% 22% 14% 11% 11% 18% 24% 29% 35% 42% 47% 50%
Other cities 10% 5% 10% 9% 4% 4% 7% 10% 11% 9% 9% 9%
By operators 10 54 206 606 1,703 4,313 11,711 18,637 26,306 33,924 40,538 46,568
Pony AI 1 9 31 88 371 1,305 4,964 7,803 10,918 12,807 14,631 16,416
Baidu 9 33 124 378 569 757 1,247 2,119 3,073 3,687 4,204 4,624
Others 0 13 51 140 764 2,251 5,501 8,714 12,315 17,430 21,704 25,529
2. Robotaxi Revenues per vehicle
2024 2025E 2026E 2027E 2028E 2029E 2030E 2031E 2032E 2033E 2034E 2035E
Revenues per vehicle (US$ '000) 8 13 18 23 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 25
Tier-1 city 9 14 20 26 26 28 30 31 31 31 31 31
Tier-2 city 8 12 16 17 17 17 19 20 21 22 22 22
Other cities 5 8 11 12 13 13 15 17 18 19 20 20
YoY% 107% 62% 36% 25% 6% 0% 3% 0% 1% 1% 0% -1%
Tier-1 city 40% 51% 43% 29% 0% 6% 6% 3% 2% 0% 0% 0%
Tier-2 city 104% 59% 33% 5% 1% 1% 10% 4% 6% 5% 2% 0%
Other cities 133% 56% 31% 13% 3% 4% 15% 9% 8% 4% 4% 0%
A. By distance
Fares per km (US$)
Tier-1 city 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.33 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.30
Tier-2 city 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.30 0.27 0.26 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.23
Other cities 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.18
YoY%
Tier-1 city 0% 0% 0% 0% -6% -6% -6% -2% -2% -2% -2% -2%
Tier-2 city 0% 0% 0% 0% -8% -8% -5% -5% -2% -2% -2% -2%
Other cities 0% 0% 0% 0% -8% -8% -5% -5% -2% -2% -2% -2%
Operating distance per day (km)
Tier-1 city 94 101 138 179 191 216 244 257 268 273 278 284
Tier-2 city 95 107 137 144
158 173 200 219 236 253 264 270
Other cities 84 94 117 132 149 168 204 235 258 274 290 296
Travelled distance per day (km)
Tier-1 city 200 220 300 360 360 380 420 440 440 440 440 440
Tier-2 city 225 275 350 350 350 375 475 475 525 550 550 550
Other cities 240 240 300 330 330 420 510 510 600 630 630 630
Utlization rate
Tier-1 city 47% 46% 46% 50% 53% 57% 58% 59% 61% 62% 63% 65%
Tier-2 city 42% 39% 39% 41% 45% 46% 42% 46% 45% 46% 48% 49%
Other cities 35% 39% 39% 40% 45% 40% 40% 46% 43% 44% 46% 47%
Revenues per vehicle day (US$) 22 36 49 62 66 66 68 68 68 69 69 69
Tier-1 city 38 41 56 72 72 77 82 84 86 86 86 86
Tier-2 city 30 34 44 46 47 47 52 54 57 60
61 61
Other cities 22 24 30 34 35 37 42 46 50 52 54 54
Operating days
Tier-1 city 250 350 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365
Tier-2 city 250 350 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365
Other cities 250 350 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365 365
B. By orders
Number of orders per day
Tier-1 city 14 15 21 27 27 27 28 29 29 29 29 29
Tier-2 city 14 15 19 20 20 20 20 20 21 22 22 22
Other cities 14 15 16 17 17 17 18 18 19 20 21 21
ASP per order (US$)
Tier-1 city 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7
2.9 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Tier-2 city 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8
Other cities 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6
Fleet size
1. Robotaxi volume
2024 2025E 2026E 2027E 2028E 2029E 2030E 2031E 2032E 2033E 2034E 2035E
Robotaxi volume (units '000) 1.3 4.1 11.4 26.9 71.0 179.3 473.5 756.3 1,054.1 1,347.7 1,609.4 1,861.3
Tier-1 cities 0.7 2.8 7.7 18.5 55.3 119.1 270.4 368.9 451.2 526.5 571.0 621.7
Beijing 0.2
0.9
2.8
6.3
20.7 44.2 105.9 134.8 172.2 205.3 221.8 243.2
Shanghai 0.1
0.5
0.7
2.6
8.9
20.5 53.2 86.5 114.5 137.3 152.4 171.3
Guangzhou 0.2
1.0
3.0
6.6
17.6 34.8 63.5 84.4 93.4 104.9 111.1 115.5
Shenzhen 0.1
0.5
1.2
3.0
8.1
19.6 47.8 63.2 71.0 78.9 85.6 91.7
Tier-2 cities 0.4 1.0 1.8 3.9 10.7 45.8 150.4 274.0 446.2 657.3 859.2 1,037.6
Other cities 0.2 0.3 1.9 4.6 5.1 14.4 52.7 113.5 156.7 163.9 179.3 202.0
YoY% 95% 224% 178% 136% 164% 152% 164% 60% 39% 28% 19% 16%
2. Shared Mobility and Penetration (Taxi + Ride hailing + Robotaxi)
Shared mobility fleet volume by city (m)
4.6 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.5 5.9 6.3 6.7 7.0 7.4
Tier-1 cities 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
Tier-2 cities 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.7
Other cities 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.9
YoY% 10% 6% 2% 2% 1% 2% 7% 7% 7% 6% 6% 5%
Shared mobility fleet volume by operation (m
4.6 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.0 5.1 5.5 5.9 6.3 6.7 7.0 7.4
Ride hailing fleet 3.2 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.3
T
axi fleet 1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
Robotax
i fleet 0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.5
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.6
1.9
Y
oY% 10% 6% 2% 2% 1% 2% 7% 7% 7% 6% 6% 5%
Robotaxi penetration rate
0% 0% 0% 1% 1% 3% 9% 13% 17% 20% 23% 25%
Tier-1 cities 0% 0.3% 1% 2% 4% 9% 19% 25% 29% 33% 34% 35%
Beijing 0% 0.2% 1% 1% 4% 9% 20% 24% 29% 33% 34% 35%
Shanghai 0% 0.1% 0% 1% 3% 6% 14% 22% 27% 31% 33% 35%
Guangzhou 0% 0.5% 1% 3% 7% 14% 24% 31% 32% 35% 35% 35%
Shenzhen 0% 0.3% 1% 2% 4% 10% 23% 29% 31% 33% 34% 35%
Tier-2 cities 0% 0.0% 0% 0% 0% 2% 5% 9% 14% 19% 24% 28%
Other cities 0% 0.0% 0% 0% 0% 1% 4% 8% 10% 10% 10% 11%
3. Robotaxi fleet by company
2024 2025E 2026E 2027E 2028E 2029E 2030E 2031E 2032E 2033E 2034E 2035E
Robotaxi volume by company (units '000)
1.3 4.1 11.4 26.9 71.0 179.3 473.5 756.3 1,054.1 1,347.7 1,609.4 1,861.3
Pony AI 0.1
0.6
1.6
3.9
15.2 51.2 180.8 294.4 404.8 465.5 521.3 573.5
Baidu 1.0
2.1
5.4
12.1 18.2 25.5 45.0 76.5 110.9 133.1 151.7 166.9
Others 0.1
1.4
4.4
10.9 37.6 102.5 247.7 385.5 538.4 749.1 936.4 1,120.9
Source: Company data, Goldman Sachs Global Investment Research
6 May 2025
5
Goldman Sachs
Global Robotaxi
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